THE IMPERATIVE OF CRIMINALIZING MARITAL SEXUAL ASSAULT IN INDIA: A SCOPING REVIEW

• Dr. Fatima N. Qureshi

  Department of Sociology, Jamia Millia Islamia, India

  Author

• Dr. Meera Raghavan

  Department of Sociology, Jamia Millia Islamia, India

  Author

Marital sexual assault, commonly known as marital rape, remains a significant legal and social challenge in India, where an exception in Section 375 of the Indian Penal Code (IPC) grants immunity to husbands for sexual acts with their wives over the age of 18. This scoping review synthesizes existing literature to highlight the urgent necessity of criminalizing marital sexual assault in India. Drawing from historical analyses, legal critiques, prevalence studies, and examinations of its profound health and societal impacts, the review identifies key themes. These include the historical roots of marital rape immunity, often linked to archaic doctrines like "coverture" [5], and its perpetuation through patriarchal norms [14, 21]. Evidence points to a significant, though underreported, prevalence of sexual violence within marriage in India [7, 35, 45], leading to severe mental and physical health consequences for women, including depression, anxiety, and PTSD [1, 3]. Societal perceptions and the deep-seated stigma surrounding marital sexual assault create substantial barriers to victim reporting and help-seeking [17, 25]. The review contrasts arguments for criminalization—rooted in human rights, gender equality, and the need for legal protection and social change [20, 33, 36]—with counter-arguments concerning the sanctity of marriage and potential misuse of the law [8, 21]. Despite these counter-arguments, the prevailing evidence underscores that criminalization is essential for aligning India's legal framework with international human rights standards and ensuring justice and dignity for married women. This review concludes that recognizing marital sexual assault as a criminal offense is a critical step towards comprehensive gender-based violence prevention and fostering a society based on mutual respect and consent.

1. Agarwal, N., Abdalla, S. M., & Cohen, G. H. (2022). Marital rape and its impact on the mental health of women in India: A systematic review. PLOS Global Public Health, 2 (6), Article e0000601. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgph.0000601

2. Balemba, S., & Beauregard, E. (2019). What leads victims to resist? Factors that influence victim resistance in sexual assaults. Journal of Criminal Psychology, 9(3), 122–137. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCP-05-2019-0014 [Factors that influence victim resistance].

3. Banerjee, D., & Rao, T. S. S. (2022). The dark shadow of marital rape: Need to change the narrative. Journal of Psychosexual Health, 4(1), 11–13. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 26318318221083709

4. Chandra, R., Srivastava, S., Singh, A., Mukherjee, S., & Patel, J. K. (2023). Locating perpetrators of violence against women in India: An analysis of married men’s characteristics associated with intimate partner violence. PLoS One, 18(8), Article e0289596. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0289596

5. Cody, L. F. (2022). “marriage is no protection for crime”: Coverture, sex, and marital rape in eighteenth-century England. Journal of British Studies, 61(4), 809–834. https://doi.org/10.1017/jbr.2022.118

6. Debowska, A., Boduszek, D., Willmott, D., & Jones, A. D. (2019). The none in three victim responsiveness assessment (ni3: VRA): A new outcome measure for intimate partner violence (IPV) prevention programs. Journal of Children’s Services, 14(2), 97–106. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCS-12-2018-0029

7. Deosthali, P.-B., Rege, S., & Arora, S. (2022). Women’s experiences of marital rape and sexual violence within marriage in India: Evidence from service records. Sexual and Reproductive Health Matters, 29(2). https://doi.org/10.1080/ 26410397.2022.2048455, 2048455–2048455.

8. Dotania, S. K. (2022). Criminalising marital rape: Yet another weapon to harass husband. Indian Journal of Integrated Research in Law, 2(6), 1–9.

9. Gallagher, K. E., & Parrott, D. J. (2010). Influence of heavy episodic drinking on the relation between men’s locus of control and aggression toward intimate partners. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 71(2), 299–306. https://doi.org/10.15288/ jsad.2010.71.299

10. Garg, D. M., & Singla, D. N. (2013). Marital rape under Indian law: A study. International Journal in Management and Social Science, 2(1), 59–68.

11. Griffin, J. A., Umstattd, M. R., & Usdan, S. L. (2010). Alcohol use and high-risk sexual behavior among collegiate women: A review of research on alcohol myopia theory. Journal of American College Health, 58(6), 523–532. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 07448481003621718

12. Jackson, A. L. (2015). State contexts and the criminalization of marital rape across the United States. Social Science Research, 51, 290–306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. ssresearch.2014.10.001

13. Khan, A. (2024). Monster husband performs Sx after consuming enhancement pills on wedding night in hamirpur, wife dies after 7 days. In Free press journal. Athena Information Solutions Pvt. Ltd. https://ezproxy.auckland.ac.nz/login?url=https ://www.proquest.com/magazines/monster-husband-performs-s-x-after-consum ing/docview/2925480557/se-2.

14. Kim, D. (2018). Marital rape immunity in India: Historical anomaly or cultural defence? Crime, Law and Social Change, 69(1), 91–107. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10611-017- 9705-3

15. Kohli, A. (2015). Forced and underage marriages in New Zealand: Some reflections on public and private patriarchy and intersectionality. International Journal for Intersectional Feminist Studies, 1, 58–70. https://doi.org/10.26021/770

16. Kumar, V. (2021). Marriage or license to rape? A socio-legal analysis of marital rape in India. Dignity a Journal of Analysis of Exploitation and Violence, 6(3). https://doi.org/ 10.23860/dignity.2021.06.03.06

17. Leonardsson, M., & San Sebastian, M. (2017). Prevalence and predictors of help-seeking for women exposed to spousal violence in India - A cross-sectional study. BMC Women’s Health, 17(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-017-0453-4, 99–99.

18. Lilley, C., Willmott, D., Mojtahedi, D., & Labhardt, D. (2022). Intimate partner rape: A review of six core myths surrounding women’s conduct and the consequences of intimate partner rape. Social Sciences, 12(1), 34. https://doi.org/10.3390/ socsci12010034

19. Mahapatro, M., Gupta, R., & Gupta, V. (2012). The risk factor of domestic violence in India. Indian Journal of Community Medicine: Official Publication of Indian Association of Preventive & Social Medicine, 37(3), 153–157. https://doi.org/10.4103/0970- 0218.99912

20. Makam, G. (2023). Marital rape laws in India: Bridging the gap between gender equality and criminal justice. Social Science Research Network. https://doi.org/10.2139/ ssrn.4475468

21. Mandal, S. (2014). The impossibility of marital rape: Contestations around marriage, sex, violence and the law in contemporary India. Australian Feminist Studies, 29(81), 255–272. https://doi.org/10.1080/08164649.2014.958124

22. Martin, E. K., Taft, C. T., & Resick, P. A. (2007). A review of marital rape. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 12(3), 329–347. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2006.10.003

23. Mathur, A. (2022). Marital rape: An exclusive ground for divorce. NUALS Law Journal. https://nualslawjournal.com/2022/12/27/marital-rape-an-exclusive-ground-fo r-divorce.

24. Mayeda, D. T., & Vijaykumar, R. (2015). Developing intimate partner violence intervention services for youth from migrant communities of colour. Auckland, New Zealand: The University of Auckland. https://researchspace.auckland.ac.nz/bitstream/handle/22 92/27503/Developing_Intimate_Partner_Violence_Int.pdf?sequence=6.

25. Menon, N. (2021). I didn’t tell anyone because of my self-respect: The collective response to naming sexual violence within marriage in India. In M. G. Torres, & K. Yllo ¨ (Eds.), Sexual violence in intimacy: Implications for research and policy in global health (1st ed., Vol. 1, pp. 59–77). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429322037-7.

26. Mocaiber, I., David, I. A., de Oliveira, L., Pereira, M. G., Volchan, E., Figueira, I., Vila, J., & Machado-Pinheiro, W. (2011). Alcohol, emotion and attention: Revisiting the alcohol myopia theory. Psicologia: Reflexao ˜ e Crítica, 24(2), 403–410. https://doi. org/10.1590/S0102-79722011000200022

27. Nadda, A., Malik, J. S., Rohilla, R., Chahal, S., Chayal, V., & Arora, V. (2018). Study of domestic violence among currently married females of Haryana, India. Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 40(6), 534–539. https://doi.org/10.4103/IJPSYM. IJPSYM_62_18

28. Naik, Y. (2024). The bharatiya nyaya sanhita (BNS): A critical examination of India’s new penal code. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4884622

29. Nigam, S. (2015). The social and legal paradox relating to marital rape in India: Addressing structural inequalities. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ ssrn.2613447

30. Nigam, S. (2022). The politics of marital rape and law. In Domestic violence law in India (1st ed., pp. 188–206). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429326974-8.

31. Paramuditha, C. (2022). Efforts to protect victims of rape crime: Law and society study. Semarang State University Undergraduate Law and Society Review, 2(2), 155–180. https://doi.org/10.15294/lsr.v2i2.53753

32. Peters, M. D. J., Marnie, C., Tricco, A. C., Pollock, D., Munn, Z., Alexander, L., McInerney, P., Godfrey, C. M., & Khalil, H. (2020). Updated methodological guidance for the conduct of scoping reviews. JBI evidence synthesis, 18(10), 2119–2126. https://doi.org/10.11124/JBIES-20-00167

33. Rao Kallakuru, R., & Soni, P. (2018). Criminalisation of marital rape in India: Understanding its constitutional, cultural and legal impact. NUJS Law Review, 11, 121. https://nujslawreview.org/2018/01/04/criminalisation-of-marital-rape-under standing-its-constitutional-cultural-and-legal-impact/.

34. Sabhapandit, S. (2023). Criminalising marital rape in India. The India Forum. https: //www.theindiaforum.in/law/criminalising-marital-rape-india.

35. Santhya, K. G., Haberland, N., Ram, F., Sinha, R. K., & Mohanty, S. K. (2007). Consent and coercion: Examining unwanted sex among married young women in India. International Family Planning Perspectives, 33(3), 124–132. https://doi.org/10.1363/ 3312407

36. Shah, R. (2020). Criminalize marital rape in India: Marriage is not a license to rape. Counterview.org [BLOG]. https://www.proquest.com/blogs-podcasts-websites/crimi nalize-marital-rape-india-marriage-is-not/docview/2471347325/se-2?accounti d=8424.

37. Singh, V. P. (2021). Judicial approaches to the criminalisation of marital rape. Indian Journal of Gender Studies, 29(1), 10–32. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 09715215211056791

38. Singh, A., & Singh, P. (2021). Assessing the extent of domestic violence against Indian women after the implementation of the domestic violence act of India, 2005. Journal of International Women’s Studies, 22(9), 361–380. https://ezproxy.auckland.ac.nz/l ogin?url=https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/assessing-extent-domesti c-violence-against-indian/docview/2575918434/se-2.

39. Sloan, J. E., Oyster, C. K., & Stange, M. Z. (2011). Rape, legal definitions of. In M. Z. Stange, C. K. Oyster, & J. E. Sloan (Eds.), Encyclopedia of women in today’s world the multimedia encyclopedia of women in today’s world (1st ed., pp. 1205–1208). SAGE Publications, Inc. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412995962.n684.

40. Swart, L., Claassen, N., & Buys, T. (2023). Mapping the evidence on assessment of fitness to work at heights: A scoping review protocol. BMJ Open, 13(5), Article e067847. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2022-067847

41. Torres, M. G. (2020). New frameworks for a global understanding of sexual violence in intimacy. In M. G. Torres, & K. Yllo ¨ (Eds.), Sexual violence in intimacy implications for research and policy in global health (1st ed., pp. 3–11). Routledge. https://doi.org/ 10.4324/9780429322037-2.

42. Van Wormer, K. S., & Bartollas, C. (Eds.). (2014). Women and the criminal justice system (4th ed.). Pearson.

43. Verma, J. S., Seth, L., Subramanian, G., & Justice JS Verma Committee. (2013). Report of the committee on amendments to criminal law. NYU Faculty Digital Archive. http://hdl. handle.net/2451/33614.

44. Vihan, R. (2013). The protection of women from domestic violence in India: In context of domestic violence act 2005. Indian Journal of Political Science, 74(1), 49–60. http:// www.jstor.org/stable/24701027.

45. Vyas, S. (2022). Conjugal rights or criminal offense: Examining the prevalence of sexual violence within marriage in India. master’s thesis. Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses https://ezproxy.auckland.ac.nz/login?url=https://www.pro quest.com/dissertations-theses/conjugal-rights-criminal-offense-examining/docv iew/2638705153/se-2.

46. Williamson, A. (2017). The law and politics of marital rape in England, 1945-1994. Women’s History Review, 26(3), 382–413. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 09612025.2015.1133536

47. World Health Organization: WHO. (2024). Violence Against Women. https://www.who. int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/violence-against-women.

48. Zulfiqar, F. (2017). Issues on explaining legal recognition of marital rape in Islam in Pakistan. The International Journal of Interdisciplinary Civic and Political Studies, 12(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.18848/2327-0071/CGP/v12i01/1-12

• pdf

All articles published by The Parthenon Frontiers and its associated journals are distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) International License unless otherwise stated. 

Authors retain full copyright of their published work. By submitting their manuscript, authors agree to grant The Parthenon Frontiers a non-exclusive license to publish, archive, and distribute the article worldwide. Authors are free to:

• Share their article on personal websites, institutional repositories, or social media platforms.

• Reuse their content in future works, presentations, or educational materials, provided proper citation of the original publication.